Elizabeth
MacKenzie
Substance abuse is a serious problem for United States (U.S.) youth. Contrary to popular belief, the average rates of substance use among most racial/ethnic minority groups is lower than the average rate of use among White American youth. Despite these findings, however, evidence suggests that the consequences of drug and alcohol problems may be more serious and long-lasting among youth of color.
Trends in Substance Use Rates
Trends in alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use and abuse are based on data from two ongoing nationalsurveys. Substance use refers to ever having used a drug while frequent or heavy use are indicators of abuse. Rates of substance use and abuse vary across a number of factors including youth age, type of substance, and racial/ethnic group.
Alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco tend to be the first drugs
used by youth, thus becoming a risk factor for the initiation of the use of other
drugs. Data
regarding use in the general population are taken
from the Monitoring the Future Survey. Data regarding use and abuse in specific racial/ethnic subpopulations come from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, Substance Use and the Mental Health Services Administration. Finally, patterns of substance use for foreign-born youth are briefly discussed.
from the Monitoring the Future Survey. Data regarding use and abuse in specific racial/ethnic subpopulations come from the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, Substance Use and the Mental Health Services Administration. Finally, patterns of substance use for foreign-born youth are briefly discussed.
Alcohol
Alcohol is the drug with the highest use rates. These rates increase between 8th and 12th grade. In terms of lifetime use, 44% of 8th graders, 64% of 10th graders, and 76.8% of 12th graders had consumed alcohol in their lives. Reports of use in the past year were similar, with 37% of 8th graders, 58% of 10th graders, and 71% of 12th graders reporting alcohol use. Frequent use occurred in .6% of 8th graders, 1% of 10th graders and nearly 3% of 12th graders who reported daily alcohol consumption.
Average use varies across racial/ethnic groups. Twelve to seventeen year-olds
reported past-month
alcohol use rates of 20.9% for White American, 13.1% for African American, 32.1% for Native American, 10.5% for Asian/Pacific Islander, and 18.9% for Latino youth. Heavy drinking, an indicator of abuse, was reported by 3.4% of White American, .7% of African American, 5.2% of Native American, 1.7% of Asian/ Pacific Islander, and 2.4% of Latino youth.
alcohol use rates of 20.9% for White American, 13.1% for African American, 32.1% for Native American, 10.5% for Asian/Pacific Islander, and 18.9% for Latino youth. Heavy drinking, an indicator of abuse, was reported by 3.4% of White American, .7% of African American, 5.2% of Native American, 1.7% of Asian/ Pacific Islander, and 2.4% of Latino youth.
Marijuana
Sixteen percent of 8th graders, 35% of 10th graders, and 46% of 12th graders used marijuana in their lifetime. Twelve percent of 8th graders, 28% of 10th graders, and 34% of 12th graders reported having used marijuana in the past year. Frequent marijuana use was reported by .8% of 8th graders, 3.2% of 10th graders, and 5.6% of 12th graders.
Average use varies across racial/ethnic groups. Twelve to seventeen year-olds
reported past-month marijuana use rates of 8.7% among White American,
8.3% of African
American, 10.3% of Native American, 3.7% of Asian/Pacific Islander, and 7.6% of Latino
youth.
Tobacco
Twenty-eight percent of 8th graders, 41% of 10th graders, and 53% of 12th graders reported they hadsmoked a cigarette in their lifetime. Smokeless tobacco lifetime rates were lower with 11% of 8th graders, 14% of 10th graders, and 17% of 12th graders reporting use. Two percent of 8th graders, 3% of 10th graders, and 8% of 12th graders reported smoking at least a half a pack of cigarettes each day. One percent of 8th graders, 1.6% of 10th graders, and 2.8% of 12th graders reported daily use of smokeless tobacco.
Average use varies across racial/ethnic groups. Twelve to
seventeen year-olds
reported past-month tobacco use rates of 20.5% of White American, 13.7% of African American,
24.7% of Native
American, 8.7% of Asian/Pacific Islander, and 15.1% of Latino American youth.
Foreign Born Youth
On average, foreign-born youth have significantly lower levels of substance abuse than do U.S.-bornyouth. However, results of cross-sectional research show that substance abuse levels increase to U.S.-
born youth over time as a function of the number of years since immigration. For example, a foreign born adolescent is less likely to use substances than an adolescent who is a first generation immigrant (i.e., U.S.- born child of a foreign-born parent). This change is believed to be part of a larger acculturative process, by which individuals from one culture adapt to continuous contact with individuals from another culture.
Summary
Generally speaking, the prevalence of substance abuse is highest among Native American youth, followed by White American youth. Although average alcohol and drug use among members of other racial/ethnic minority groups is lower than the average among White American youth, the former are more likely to develop abuse and dependence than the latter.
Furthermore, racial and ethnic minority youth tend to have reduced
access to quality
healthcare services and to be less likely to use healthcare even when there is access.
Thus, minimizing
initiation and escalation of drug and alcohol use among youth is an
important target for prevention.
Substance Abuse Prevention
Substance abuse prevention programs aim to reduce factors that increase the risk of substance use andincrease factors that reduce the risk of drug related problems. Families and schools play a critical role
in either reducing or increasing risk. Although the popular ‘‘just say no’’ campaign is an appealingly
simple strategy, effective prevention requires multiple strategies and contributions of both families and schools (see Suggested resources for links to prevention programs).
Family Factors
Research suggests that when parents provide clear guidelines and rules against substance use, their children are less likely to use or abuse substances. Another important strategy is monitoring. Parents reduce their children’s risk of using substances when they know where their children are throughout the day, including when the children are away from home or unsupervised.
Other strategies that parents can use to reduce the likelihood of drug
and alcohol problems are:
(a) to provide opportunities for their children’s engagement in pro-social
activities, especially during
the after school hours;
the after school hours;
(b) to promote bonding by spending time with their
children and rewarding them for the positive things they do;
(c) to have and enforce consistent and effective consequences of drug
use and other problem
behaviors, such as removing privileges; and
(d) to have regular family meetings to collaboratively discuss
problems and family rules using constructive problem-solving skills.
School Factors
Schools that provide a sense of community reduce the risk that students will use or abuse drugs and alcohol. In particular, school bonding, a combination of commitment and attachment to the positive aspects of school life, reduces the risk that students will use substances. Strategies to promote school bonding include:(a) a strong and friendly presence of staff throughout the school (e.g., principal stands in hallway and greets students by name each morning),
(b) providing opportunities for students to interact with pro-social
adults and peers, and
(c) recognizing positive youth behavior with rewards and
other forms of recognition.
Other important protective factors are monitoring for substance use and
delinquent behaviors and the
provision of effective negative consequences for such behaviors. Effective monitoring requires adequate and frequent supervision of areas in the school and on the school grounds as well as a positive school climate.
provision of effective negative consequences for such behaviors. Effective monitoring requires adequate and frequent supervision of areas in the school and on the school grounds as well as a positive school climate.
Suggested Reading
Chun, K. M., Balls Organista, P., & Marı´n, G. (Eds.) (2003). Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.Shin, M. R., Walker, H. M., & Stoner, G. (Eds.) (2002). Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches. Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.
Suggested Resources
Drug Use among Racial/Ethnic Minorities—http://www.drugabuse.gov/pubs/minorities/: A report that provides policymakers, program leaders and staff, health administrators, scientists, and others with information that may help them understand the
nature and extent of illegal drug use, associated behaviors, and problems that affect our nation’s racial/ethnic minority populations and the current non-Hispanic White majority population.
Reducing Tobacco Use: A Report of the Surgeon General—http://surgeongeneral.gov/library/tobacco_use/: This website provides an audio clip and fact sheets about reducing tobacco use.
References
C. S. Clauss-Ehlers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology, DOI
10.1007/978-0-387-71799-9, Springer
Science+Business Media LLC 2010
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