Theoretical Models, Factors, Scales.
By: Antonia Hernandez
The
process of acculturation refers to the changes that occur when a group of people experience ongoing
contact with another group of people who differ in
cultural values, behaviors, and attitudes. As a result
of this sustained contact, changes in the original
pattern of behavior may be noted among the
non-dominant group of people.
The
process of acculturation has a psychological and social impact. Changes in behaviors,
attitudes, values, and cultural identification are
examples of the acculturation experience that transpire on an individual basis. The
process of acculturative impact includes variability and changes in a group’s
customs and economic and political life.
Psychological
changes are noted in individuals’
attitudes toward the acculturation process, their
cultural identities, and social behaviors. The experiential
process of adaptation has core psychological features that include skills that
are necessary to successfully maneuver through
the culturally enigmatic process.
Theoretical Models
Two
theoretical frameworks have dominated the study of this complex cultural phenomenon, the
uni-dimensional and bi-dimensional perspectives. Initial research on immigration theorized that immigrants would be absorbed into mainstream society in a linear fashion. In other words, immigrants would lose their ethnic identities as they irremediably adhered and adopted values, behaviors, and attitudes of the host society.
The uni-dimensional model postulates that
acculturation occurs on a continuum that ranges
from the immersion in the person’s culture of origin to the immersion in the dominant or host culture. A limitation of the uni-dimensional model is its failure to measure how an individual balances both cultures as he/she goes through the process of acculturation.
In
the 1970s a prominent researcher, John W. Berry, proposed a bi-dimensional process of acculturation
that states individuals are able to maintain and
link aspects of their culture of origin as they
settle into mainstream society. For the bi-dimensional
model, acculturation consists of two distinct
independent dimensions: adherence to the dominant culture and maintenance of
the culture of origin.
A
major strength in this model is that it captures the realities and challenges associated
the acculturation process. The two independent dimensions facilitate the measurement of the processes that take place when individuals come into direct and
continuous contact with a different culture, as well
as the changes that occur when individuals attempt
to balance both their own cultural identity and the
acquisition of novel values, attitudes and behaviors.
Similarly,
Jean Phinney introduced a bi-dimensional model of two independent dimensions at the core of people’s cultural identity. Following this framework, individuals may have distinct identities with reference
to their cultures of origin and mainstream society.
Two issues have been noted in this model: the
nature and maintenance of an individual’s
cultural heritage and identity, and the degree
to which individuals seek to enmesh themselves
within mainstream society.
As
these aspects of the
acculturation process intersect with each other,
the process can be broken down into four sectors:
(a)
Assimilation, where individuals adhere to cultural aspects of the dominant new
society while maintaining little aspects of their own cultural legacy;
(b) Separation, individuals maintain
aspects of their culture of origin while
rejecting any and all adherence to the dominant
society’s cultural values;
(c)
Marginalization, individuals reject both cultural aspects
of the dominant society and their culture of
origin;
(d)
Integration, the last sector of this acculturation quadrant,
where individuals maintain and adhere to
cultural aspects of both the dominant society
and their culture of origin.
Acculturation Factors
Acculturation
affects individuals on various levels of functioning- cognitive, behavioral, and affective.
A
prominent difficulty in specifying the various domains that are affected by this phenomenon is that
it can be viewed as a process that can have an
impact on individual or group levels. There is a
dualistic effect in the process of acculturation
as it affects the culture of a group and changes
the psychology or behavior of the individual.
The
contextual factors that influence groups of people and individuals in this process
are important because they directly affect how
individuals adapt to a new culture. Individuals
or groups of people may enter this process
voluntarily or involuntarily. Some individuals
or groups may physically relocate to a new
environment or have their territories invaded or colonized by another group of people.
The
theory of acculturation
emphasizes that the course of adaptation varies
in individuals; similarly, the level of difficulty experienced throughout the process (acculturative stress), and finally the actual outcome experience of the acculturation process differ amongst groups and individuals.
Demographic
factors have been noted in the literature as being significant contributors to the
acculturation process; age, gender, language, religion,
socioeconomic status of the family, and others have
often been identified as sources of variation that
directly influence how individuals adapt to a new
environment.
Differences
in cultural values, attitudes, and behaviors may contribute to psychological,
behavioral, or social difficulties that affect
the adaptation experience on an individual or
group basis. Consequently, these differences may
lead to conflicts as individuals try to adapt to a new environment. For instance, studies have shown that adolescent
problem behavior and acculturation have often been
linked to discrepancies in parent-child acculturation levels, that is, when parents maintain traditional values and acculturate at a slower pace than their adolescent
children. Intergenerational acculturation gaps produce
a clash in values and expectations between
parents and teens that can result in increased
family conflict, parent-child alienation, and youth maladjustment.
Researchers
have utilized markers of acculturation such as generation status and English language use, and
have noted a link with a range of externalizing
outcomes including conduct problems, juvenile
arrests, alcohol and substance abuse, and early
sexual activity. For example, it has been noted that acculturated Latino youth
tend to display more psychological problems as they
acquire and adhere to cultural values of the dominant
society. On the other hand, studies have shown that
more acculturated youth who utilize the English
language at home tend to do better academically.
Variable results have been presented throughout
the literature in reference to individuals with
differentiating levels of acculturation, making
this a vital research area to further understand
this complex cultural phenomenon.
The Case of Latino Youth and Values
The
Latino/Hispanic population in the U.S. has grown dramatically in recent years, now
comprising 13.3% of the total U.S. population.
Currently 50% of Latinos are under the age of
26. It is estimated that Latino youth will grow
to nearly 29% of the total U.S. population by the year 2050.
Latinos
are a heterogeneous group
and show salient differences in terms of their socioeconomic
status, race, age, country of origin, and the
social context in which they leave their country of origin and migrate to the U.S. The term Latino encompasses
various ethnic groups primarily Mexican American,
Central and South American, Cuban, and Puerto
Rican.
Traditional
Latino families are hierarchical, with special preference given to the elderly,
parents, males, and figures of authority. As a result of such formative cultural values in the Latino culture, the experiential process of acculturation
undergone by most Latinos is important to
address.
For
instance, familismo, a core cultural value across various Latino subgroups,
carries the expectation that the family is the
primary source of support, loyalty, and solidarity.
Latinos are expected to
identify with familistic orientation and comply with traditional cultural scripts.
identify with familistic orientation and comply with traditional cultural scripts.
Another
core value in the Latino
culture is personalismo that stresses
interdependent relations and a warm personal way of relating. Along the lines of personalismo, is the cultural concept of simpatı ´a that
emphasizes harmonious social relationships, and avoidance of interpersonal
conflict.
Finally,
respeto promotes
dignity and respect towards others, particularly to parents and figures of authority.
As a result, less acculturated family members may be
more strongly invested in establishing and maintaining
harmonious and respectful relationships and be less
accepting of conflict. On the other hand, more
acculturated individuals may adhere to European American approaches that value direct communication that may lead to more conflict.
Different
acculturative levels between
parents and youth and subsequent differences in
views and behaviors may, in turn, explain differences in family conflict such as parent-child conflict.
Measurement Scales
Acculturation
measures utilize sociocultural, behavioral and psychological characteristics to
understand where
individuals or groups of people stand in terms of their adaptation to the dominant society Acculturation rating
scales increase understanding of the impact of
cultural variables on psychological adjustment.
A
prominent measure of acculturation for Mexican Americans is the Acculturation Rating
Scale for Mexican Americans II (ARSMA-II), developed by Israel Cuellar and colleagues. This scale has been designed to assess the acculturation of Mexican Americans from diverse socioeconomic, educational, and linguistic backgrounds. ARSMA-II measures acculturation through an orthogonal, multidimensional approach. This instrument identifies the four distinct
acculturation strategies or outcomes mentioned earlier Assimilation,
Separation, Integration, and Marginalization. A major limitation of ARSMA-II is
that it restricts its utility only to Mexican
Americans. Research is necessary to examine the current validity of this scale.
It is one of the first measurement scales to lay
the foundation for future researchers to improve
and test innovative bi-dimensional measures, not
only for Mexican Americans but for other groups
of people as well.
It
is important to be cognizant of the various limitations that are posed by
acculturation measurement scales. First, acculturation measures need to take
into consideration the contextual factors surrounding the acculturation process. Many individuals may be
voluntary or involuntary migrants and, as a result, the adaptation process is experienced differently by
diverse individuals or groups of people.
Second,
the acculturation process
is a developmental phenomenon that cannot be
captured by a measurement scale alone and, as a
consequence, may be lost in theory, due to the changes
that occur throughout time. As a result, the influence
of time and context should be at the forefront of measurement strategies since
these are crucial components of the
acculturation process.
Suggested Reading
Gonzales,
N. A., Knight, G. P., Morgan-Lopez, A., Saenz, D., & Sirolli, A. (2002). Acculturation and the
mental health of Latino youth: An integration and critique of the
literature. In
J.
Contreras, A. Neal-Barnett, & K. Kerns (Eds.), Latino
children and families in the
United States: Current research and future directions (pp. 45–74). Westport, CT: Praeger.
Nguyen,
H. H. (2006). Acculturation in the United States. In
D.
L. Sam, & J. W. Berry (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of acculturation
psychology (pp. 311–330). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Phinney,
J. (2003). Ethnic identity and acculturation. In
K.
Chun, P. B., Organista,
and G. Marin (Eds.), Acculturation: Advances in theory, measurement, and applied research
(pp. 63–81). Washington,
D.C.: American Psychological Association
References
C.
S. Clauss-Ehlers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School
Psychology, DOI 10.1007/978-0-387-71799-9, Springer
Science+Business Media LLC 2010
Read Also
What we know about culture and health?Evolving effort to include a more comprehensive use of culture
What culture is? What culture does?
Cross-Cultural Dissonance
Family Fragmentation
Stereotyping
Stigma
Stress/Stressors And Acculturation
Cross-Cultural Dissonance
Family Fragmentation
Stereotyping
Stigma
Stress/Stressors And Acculturation
No comments:
Post a Comment