In acculturation context
Yoko Takebayashi
Families with school-aged children are faced with various challenges in negotiating different generational values and children’s increasing needs for autonomy. For families of color, the stress of these negotiations may be complicated by oppression and discrimination by the mainstream society.
In addition, some families may also face challenges
related to immigration and acculturation. Such hardships can result in
fragmentation of families. Thus, families of color at times require
culturally specific
intervention to bolster their ability to function as a cohesive unit.
The lives of families of color are often disadvantaged by the
negative impact of racism. Discrimination in employment, housing,
education and social services can hinder social advancement. Ethnic minority
children and adolescents typically begin questioning the impact of race and racism on
their identity development, and require emotional validation of their
experiences.
Thus, it is paramount that the family support system remains intact to
provide an emotionally nurturing environment for youngsters. However, stress
resulting from
oppression by society can make family support systems more
vulnerable. Further, ambivalent or conflicting attitudes towards one’s own race can
lead to
internalization of racism or even blaming of a spouse for life difficulties.
Needless to say, this is detrimental to marriages. It is known that a
significantly higher proportion of families of color, particularly Puerto Ricans and
African Americans, are
headed by a single parent (usually female), in comparison to White families.
In particular, single African American mothers are less
likely to be divorced
and most likely to have never been married. This increases the possibility that
their children
may be deprived of the emotional and economic advantages of being raised in
two-parent households.
However, it is important to note that availability of an extended family system can provide
a buffer against such
external stress. It is also important to note that within African American and
West Indian
cultures, single-parenthood is perceived as neither atypical nor
dysfunctional when there is extended family involvement.
New immigrant families, on the other hand, commonly face
unique stressors in the process of adapting to American culture. Two
of the largest and fastest growing immigrant groups in the United States (U.S.)
are Latinos and Asian
Americans. Both cultures share collectivistic traits, in which interdependence within
the extended family
system is typically valued. Thus, physical separation from close-knit family kinship can
significantly compromise
the immigrant families’ support system.
Another challenge is in managing stress related to acculturation. For
example, immigrant families are often forced to navigate the complexity
of the
American school system before they develop sufficient language and cultural
proficiency. Acculturative stress can at times hinder the families’ ability to
function cohesively and to provide an emotionally supportive environment for
each other.
The varying rates of acculturation among family members can also make the
family structure vulnerable. In general, youngsters tend to acculturate more
rapidly than their
parents, due to increased exposure to the mainstream culture through school and peer
interactions. They may quickly adopt the mainstream American values of
individualism, wherein the individual’s freedom of choice is more valued than
collective goals
or obligations. These values are often at odds with traditional family values
commonly shared among
immigrant parents, as is the case with Latinos and Asian Americans. These
cultures value traditional, hierarchical family structures in which children are
expected to submit to
parental authority.
This difference in values between children and their
caregivers can exacerbate intergenerational and intercultural
conflict significantly more than similar generational conflict experienced among
non-immigrant families. The conflict arising due to the acculturation gap is
identified as
one of the risk factors that can potentially lead to youngsters’ low self-esteem,
emotional adjustment and conduct problems.
Interventions for families of color need to consider the unique cultural factors
that contribute to their
difficulties. Increased educational and support opportunities are needed for ethnic minority children as well as for their families to raise awareness of their heritage and to cultivate adaptive coping skills against racism. Bicultural effectiveness training can also enhance the skills necessary for social advancement and attenuate intergenerational and cultural conflict within the family system.
difficulties. Increased educational and support opportunities are needed for ethnic minority children as well as for their families to raise awareness of their heritage and to cultivate adaptive coping skills against racism. Bicultural effectiveness training can also enhance the skills necessary for social advancement and attenuate intergenerational and cultural conflict within the family system.
Suggested Reading
Gonzales, N. A., Deardorff, J., Formoso, D., Barr, A., & Barrera, M., Jr. (2006). Family mediators of the relation between acculturation and adolescent mental health. Family Relations, 55(3), 318–330.Martinez, C. R., Jr. (2006). Effects of differential family acculturation on Latino adolescent substance use. Family Relations, 55(3), 306–317.References
C. S. Clauss-Ehlers (Ed.), Encyclopedia
of Cross-Cultural School Psychology, DOI
10.1007/978-0-387-71799-9, Springer
Science+Business Media LLC 2010
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