Karen Jaffe . Melinda Finkel-Konigsberg
Stigma is the identification of a quality, characteristic, or attribute as a ‘‘flaw’’ or deficiency that separates the owner from others. There are numerous characteristics, traits, and choices that end in a stigmatized identity.
Erving
Goffman distinguishes three types of stigma: abominations of the body, which include physical
abnormalities such as overweight or obesity; blemishes
of individual character, which consist of people
whose morals are perceived as being different from
society’s in general, such as someone who is perceived
as being lazy or unable to control his or her drinking
or food consumption; and tribal stigma, such as
non-dominant ethnic, racial, and religious groups.
Social
stigma occurs when a person possesses a trait that conveys a devalued social identity
in a particular context. A person may be
stigmatized in one context, but not in another.
For example, an Orthodox Jew may be stigmatized
for wearing a yarmulke in a secular setting,
while being stigmatized for not doing so among other Orthodox Jews.
However,
some stigmas are more
likely to permeate most of society. One of the most
unchanging and enduring sources of stigma is race.
Historically, being African American in the United States (U.S.) White-dominated culture has provided a context of stigma that is broad enough (i.e., stereotypes in the media; behavior of teachers, bank officers,
police, store clerks, and more) to encompass
most experiences.
Stigmas
can be either ascribed or achieved. Racial and ethnic stigmas, for example, are ascribed, as one does not choose his or her race or ethnicity. To the
contrary, people who use plastic surgery to look more
like an animal such as a cat or a vampire actively
choose to take on a deviant identity.
Some
stigmas lie on the line
between ascribed and achieved. For instance,
there is much question regarding whether sexual
orientation and being overweight are ascribed or
achieved attributes due to the debate over the role genetics plays in these characteristics.
Some
stigmas are immediately noticeable, such as a severe handicap, burn, or scars, while
others can often be hidden. Others stigmas are
on the border between being openly recognizable
or not. Take for instance a morbidly obese woman
who undergoes bariatric surgery, yet hopes to
leave her identity as a fat person behind.
Although losing weight will alleviate part of the
stigma’s burden, the genetic predisposition to be overweight, and the potential for her to gain back the
weight could be enough to continue a stigmatizing
experience. As a consequence, many people who have
had drastic weight loss attempt to detach themselves
from the people and places that remind them of their
stigma, only to be exposed when asked about their
scars, or extra skin.
Consequences of Stigma
Sociologists Bruce Link and Jo C. Phelan view stigma as a compilation of the following process: being labeled, stereotyped, and separated from the rest of society; loss of status; and discrimination. A characteristic cannot be stigmatized unless it has a name or label that is attached to negative stereotypes. This is evidenced in popular culture by horror movies where the villain is often disfigured in some way.
This
association between labels and stereotypes encourages people to separate themselves
from people with deviant characteristics.
More explicitly, one of the fundamental ways
people understand their social worlds is by defining in-groups and out-groups.
Those people who are part of one’s in-group are
considered safe, such as family members and
friends. People in the out-group are seen as
unsafe, uncomfortable to be around, and are
different in fundamental ways, such as racially, ethnically, or socioeconomically.
People
categorize individuals
with stigmatized traits (that they themselves do not possess) as out-group members.
This process occurs both consciously and
subconsciously, and many people have been
cognitively programmed to attach stigmas to
certain characteristics.
Being
placed in one’s out-group is only a consequence in societies where there is an
existing social hierarchy. What makes being separated from society
detrimental to one’s identity is that it generally
leads to some form of status loss and opens
stigmatized people up to discrimination on both
personal and institutional or structural levels.
On
a personal level, stigmatized
people are vulnerable to being insulted and looked
down upon during day-to-day activities. The internment
of Japanese people in 1942 under Executive Order
9066 and the current bureaucracy that financially disadvantages same-sex life
partners by not allowing them to legally marry
are examples of institutional discrimination.
Perhaps
one of the greatest consequences of stigma is its effect on one’s self-concept. Stigma causes a person to be continually under suspicion, not for his/her
character or for who she/he is, but for fitting a profile, a stereotype that directs ill-will towards him
or her. Once labeled and stereotyped, a person
may internalize this stereotype and, when the stigma enters a person’s self-concept, it may take salience over other
personal attributes.
For
instance, academic performance is one of the most prevalent domains of stigma for African American, Native American,
and Latino students. Students of color are stigmatized
as possessing a tendency toward poor academic performance. As a consequence, an anxiety-based reaction to a perceived stereotype
threat may result in underperformance despite strong preparation. Worse, a
targeted student may reject the school setting,
reduce effort, and see failure as an indication of
self-worth.
Coping with Stigma
How one copes with stigma depends upon whether the stigma is ascribed or achieved, visible or hidden, and how detrimental the status loss and discrimination are to one’s well being. For instance, recognition of a stigma as a medical condition can be beneficial or detrimental.
Vietnam
veterans who returned home from war with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) benefited when the diagnosis was officially recognized
as a psychological disorder. The veterans were
validated and their condition was de-stigmatized; they explained their behavior and thoughts as symptoms of a medical condition. Gay men and lesbian women benefited when the American Psychiatric Association declared that homosexuality was not an illness, enabling greater acceptance of same-sex relationships as a lifestyle and not a pathology.
Stigmatization
can be a source of isolation and a negative experience, but sharing one’s status with similar
others can provide social and emotional support. Individuals from stigmatized groups may improve self-esteem by identifying more strongly with their ethnic, racial, religious, gender, or other stigmatized
group. For example, becoming active in Hillel, a
Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender center, or
an Asian society, can propel students to seek
out similar others as a buffer against potential
feelings of isolation. Their identity can become
a source of pride that promotes psychological well
being.
On
a larger scale, people who have what Goffman termed tribal stigmas may choose
(and are sometimes
forced) to live in communities that are highly
populated by other people with a similar stigma. Often this has the positive consequence of changing the balance of power and alleviating much of the disadvantage
brought on by stigmas.
Each
individual with a concealable stigma is faced with deciding whether to express one’s
stigmatized characteristic or to ‘‘pass’’ by suppressing it to fit
in or change others’ reactions. There are
physical and psychological costs for those who
are under the constant pressure to hide their stigmas. People will often
decide whether the cost of hiding the characteristic
outweighs the risks of opening up about it.
Therefore, with activism and the emergence of
revolutionary trends towards self-definition
there has been a more general willingness to
publicly declare one’s group affiliation with
pride and honor. This type of statement is made in
spite of societal tendencies to stigmatize membership in certain groups, and to try to justify negative treatment
or the withholding of full citizenship rights.
A
recent peaceful example of
such activism is the ‘‘Day without Immigrants’’
where nearly a million illegal immigrants and
their supporters stayed home from work, and refused
to patronize U.S. stores to show their effect on the economy. The aim here was to convince Congress to pass positive legislation on their behalf. On a smaller
scale, the National Association to Advance Fat
Acceptance was formed to fight for fat people’s rights and provide a social organization where obese people could
feel accepted.
Some
people simply accept their stigmatized condition and succeed as best they can
despite the limitations
posed on them; others employ all three tactics—passing, resistance, and
acceptance—under different circumstances as they navigate their lives.
Conclusion
Stigmatization can deprive individuals of uniqueness and make it difficult for members of stereotyped groups to enhance self-esteem through social identity processes. Educators, parents, health professionals, and mentors can encourage people who have stigmas to embrace their identities.
By
empowering people with stigmas
to understand they do not have to be viewed as a
barrier, and instead as a way to display one’s unique history and experience, psychological consequences of stigmas may be alleviated. At the same time, stigmas do
not have to be permanent.
By
teaching others that difference
is relative, individuals and societies may be able
to eradicate today’s existing stigmas.
Suggested Reading
Goffman, E. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon & Schuster.Jones, J. (1997). Prejudice and racism. New York: McGraw-Hill.Link, B. G., & Phelan, J. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385.References
C. S. Clauss-Ehlers (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology, DOI
10.1007/978-0-387-71799-9, Springer
Science+Business Media LLC 2010
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